Research Methods

Selecting scientific procedures and research methods

A scientific procedure means a procedure through which a given task related to the research and reaching the research aim is successively implemented. A scientific procedure is based on certain methodology. Its content is supported by the methodology. The meaning of a scientific procedure is to successfully reach the research aim. At the same time, a scientific procedure means implementation of research methods.

Selecting methods

1) Classification of scientific procedures according to method criteria

	Description	Example
theoretical	• uses purely theoretical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, modeling) • usually does not work with specific data • specific phenomena are viewed from a theoretical point of view	Pedagogical behavior of a teacher is clarified through models or constructions... It can be described verbally or with a scheme... It is treated only theoretically regardless of specific agents...
empiric	• always works with specific data • reaches specific pieces of knowledge via exact methods • its subjects are animate subjects (teachers, students) or inanimate objects (textbooks, essays written by students)	A novice teacher (Šimoník, 1994). Specific teachers, specific methods (questionnaire), arrives at specific results.

Scientific procedures can be classified from different points of view. The table presents one of possible classifications: the type of scientific procedure is differentiated on the basis of the prevailing type of scientific procedure, i.e. whether empiric or theoretical methods prevail in the course of scientific procedure.

Another possible classification is based on the way of explanation or interpretation of the treated issue respectively. Based on this criterion, so-called types of scientific methods are differentiated. Among them, there are explanation and interpretation methods. Explanation proceeds from the general to the individual. The general means familiar relationship (e.g. in the form of a “scientific law”); the specific is the phenomena which is being explained and which is included into a general relationship. Interpretation is a different procedure.

From the point of view of generality, the most general methods are methods referred to as general scientific methods. They can be used in scientific research universally. The most important are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, comparing, specifying and analogy.

An individual field of study may use its own (specific) research method. Such a method is referred to as a “specific method”, which suggests that the given method is unique and used only in the given field of study.

2) Differentiation of general scientific methods relative to explanation and interpretation

3) Classification of scientific methods which are prevailing in kinanthropology

QUANTITATIVE – based on positivism, uses deduction (Theory – forming hypotheses – observation – testing hypotheses – interpretation and generalization). It is based on theory and presupposes a research project.

QUALITATIVE – based on phenomenology, ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism (interpretative paradigm), uses induction (observation – revealing regularity – conclusions – theory). It is numeric examination and interpretation. The aim is to reveal the meaning of information (narrative sociology).

Quantitative approach tests formed hypotheses, it formulates them qualitatively and it creates new hypotheses and new theory.

Examples of quantitative methods:
experiment, (quasi-experiment)
correlative examination
more specialized
normative examination
longitudinal study
time series analysis
Q-methodology
Cluster analysis
One-dimensional and multi-dimensional scaling
Operative research

Examples of qualitative methods:
Case study
Ethnography (including observation and participation observation)
Grounded theory
Examining narrations based on language examination
Ethnomethodology and conversation analysis
Discourse analysis, semiotics
Document and text analysis

Hendl in Hendl, J. Introduction into qualitative research. Prague: Karolinum, 1997 defines the advantages and disadvantages of quantitative research

Advantages of quantitative research	Disadvantages of quantitative research
Testing and validating theories. Can be generalized for population. The researcher can construct situations in such a way to eliminate interfering variables and prove the relation cause-consequence. Relatively fast and direct data collection. Provides precise, numeric data. Relatively fast data analysis (use of computers). Results are relatively independent from the researcher. It is useful while examining large groups.	Categories and theories used by the researcher do not need to reflect local specialties. The researcher may disregard phenomena because he/she is focused only on certain theory and its testing and not on developing the theory. Acquired knowledge may be too abstract and general to be applied in local conditions. In a reductive way, the researcher is restricted in data gathering.
Advantages of qualitative research	Disadvantages of qualitative research
It provides detailed description and form during examining an individual, group, event or phenomenon. It treats a phenomenon in natural environment. It makes it possible to study processes. It makes it possible to propose theories. It reacts well to local situations and conditions. It looks for local (idiographic) causative relationships. It assists in initial exploration of phenomena.	It may not be possible to generalize the acquired knowledge for population and in different environment. It is difficult to make quantitative predictions. It is more difficult to test hypotheses and theories. Data analysis and collection are often time consuming stages. Results are easily influenced by the researcher and his/her personal preferences.

Rules of qualitative research

Openness
Towards tested persons, including their irregularities
Towards used methods
In creating a plan when hypotheses are finalized only during research

Including subjectivity
The researcher’s identification with the examined phenomenon; this approach should be of a critical and dialectic distance

Processuality
Both social processes and communication are of a processual character; its features changes (methods, ways of researcher’s interpretation etc.).

Reflexivity
Interpretative understanding; ability to react to new and unexpected situations.

Case-focus
Attention paid to individual cases, detailed description; with the help of cases, theories are proposed and tested.

History and context
All conclusions must be validated for a given context.

Questioning determinedness
Determinism can be overcome by human interpretation. A certain system must be regarded as a guessed order within which people continuously argue while mutual communication about their intentions and expectations.

Plans of qualitative research (research conception, basic research arrangement)
case study
document analysis
biographical research
ethnographic terrain research
active and critical research
evaluation